Indian Polity

Indian Polity is one of the highest-scoring sections in SSC CGL, CHSL, CPO, Railway, CDS, NDA, and all State PCS examinations. Every year 4 to 8 questions come directly from this subject. Topics like Fundamental Rights, Constitutional Amendments, Parliament, the President, Emergency Provisions, Panchayati Raj, and Constitutional Bodies are repeatedly tested. A student who understands the structure of the Constitution and memorises key articles and amendment numbers can score full marks in this section without difficulty.

1. CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

1.1 Introduction

Before India became an independent republic, its governance was shaped by a series of British Acts and Regulations spanning nearly 175 years. Understanding these Acts is essential because many SSC questions directly test dates, features, and personalities associated with them.

1.2 Important Acts and Their Key Features

1.3 Timeline of Constitutional Development

• 1773 — Regulating Act — first regulation of Company
• 1784 — Pitt's India Act — Board of Control created
• 1833 — Charter Act — India becomes British colony
• 1853 — Last Charter Act — civil services opened
• 1858 — Crown takes over — Viceroy system begins
• 1909 — Separate electorates for Muslims
• 1919 — Dyarchy in provinces
• 1935 — Most comprehensive pre-independence Act
• 1942 — Cripps Mission fails
• 1946 — Cabinet Mission — Constituent Assembly formed
• 1947 — Independence and partition

SSC One-Liners — Constitutional Development

• First Governor-General of India: Lord William Bentinck (Charter Act 1833)
• First Viceroy of India: Lord Canning (Government of India Act 1858)
• Last Governor-General of independent India: C. Rajagopalachari
• Separate electorate for Muslims introduced: Indian Councils Act 1909
• Dyarchy introduced in provinces: Government of India Act 1919
• Maximum provisions of 1950 Constitution taken from: Government of India Act 1935
• Indian Independence Act passed by British Parliament: 18 July 1947
• Cripps Mission year: 1942
• Cabinet Mission year: 1946
• Mountbatten Plan announced: 3 June 1947

2. CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

2.1 Formation and Basic Facts

• Demand for a Constituent Assembly first made by M. N. Roy in 1934
• Officially demanded by Indian National Congress in 1935
• Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) agreed to set up the Constituent Assembly
• Total members initially elected: 389 (292 from provinces + 93 from princely states + 4 from Chief Commissioners' provinces)
• After partition, membership reduced to 299
• First meeting of Constituent Assembly: 9 December 1946
• Temporary Chairman at first meeting: Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha
• Permanent President elected on 11 December 1946: Dr. Rajendra Prasad
• Vice-Presidents: H. C. Mukherjee and V. T. Krishnamachari
• Constitutional Advisor: Sir B. N. Rau
• Total sessions held: 11 sessions
• Constitution adopted: 26 November 1949 (Constitution Day / Law Day)
• Constitution came into force: 26 January 1950 (Republic Day)
• Time taken to draft: 2 years, 11 months, 18 days
• Members who signed the Constitution: 284 out of 299

2.2 Drafting Committee

2.3 Other Important Committees

2.4 Important Facts about the Constituent Assembly

• Jawaharlal Nehru moved the famous Objectives Resolution on 13 December 1946 — this became the basis of the Preamble
• India chose 26 January for enforcement to honour the 1930 Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) declaration
• Dr. Ambedkar described Article 32 as the "heart and soul" of the Constitution
• The phrase "We, the People" was inspired by the United States Constitution
• Preamble described as the "soul" of the Constitution by K. M. Munshi

SSC One-Liners — Constituent Assembly

• First demand for Constituent Assembly: M. N. Roy, 1934
• Temporary Chairman: Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha
• Permanent President: Dr. Rajendra Prasad
• Drafting Committee Chairman: Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
• Constitution adopted: 26 November 1949
• Constitution enforced: 26 January 1950
• Time taken: 2 years, 11 months, 18 days
• Members who signed: 284

3. SOURCES OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

🧠 Memory Trick — Sources: "BUSICAGSF" = Britain, USA, South Africa, Ireland, Canada, Australia, Germany, Soviet Union, France

• DPSP → Ireland
• Emergency provisions → Germany
• Fundamental Duties → USSR
• Judicial Review → USA
• Parliamentary government → Britain

SSC One-Liners — Sources

• DPSP borrowed from: Ireland
• Fundamental Duties borrowed from: USSR
• Judicial Review borrowed from: USA
• Emergency provisions borrowed from: Germany (Weimar Republic)
• Concurrent List borrowed from: Australia
• Residuary powers to Centre — model of: Canada

4. PARTS AND SCHEDULES OF THE CONSTITUTION

4.1 Constitution at a Glance

4.2 Important Parts

4.3 All 12 Schedules

4.4 Seventh Schedule — Three Lists

SSC One-Liners — Schedules

• Anti-Defection Law: 10th Schedule
• Languages: 8th Schedule
• Three Lists: 7th Schedule
• Panchayat powers (29 subjects): 11th Schedule
• Municipal powers (18 subjects): 12th Schedule
• 9th Schedule added by: 1st Constitutional Amendment, 1951

5. PREAMBLE OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

5.1 Full Text of the Preamble

"WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation..."

5.2 Key Terms Explained

5.3 Important Facts about the Preamble

• Preamble is considered the soul and spirit of the Constitution — K. M. Munshi
• Supreme Court in Berubari Case (1960) ruled that the Preamble is NOT part of the Constitution
• Supreme Court in Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) overruled this and held that the Preamble IS part of the Constitution
• The words "Socialist" and "Secular" were added by the 42nd Amendment, 1976
• The phrase "Unity of the Nation" was changed to "Unity and Integrity of the Nation" by the 42nd Amendment, 1976
• The Preamble has been amended only once — by the 42nd Amendment
• The idea of "We the People" was inspired by the US Constitution
• Objectives Resolution moved by Nehru on 13 December 1946 forms the basis of the Preamble

🧠 Memory Trick — Preamble Keywords: "SSSDR — JLEF" = Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic = Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity

SSC One-Liners — Preamble

• "Socialist" and "Secular" added by: 42nd Amendment, 1976
• Preamble amended: Only once
• Preamble called "soul of Constitution" by: K. M. Munshi
• Kesavananda Bharati Case year: 1973
• Berubari Case year: 1960

6. CITIZENSHIP

6.1 Constitutional Provisions

• Articles 5 to 11 in Part II deal with citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution
• The Citizenship Act 1955 governs all citizenship matters currently
• India provides for single citizenship only (unlike USA which has federal + state citizenship)
• Article 11 empowers Parliament to regulate citizenship by law

6.2 Ways to Acquire Citizenship (Citizenship Act 1955)

• By Birth — Born in India on or after 26 January 1950 but before 1 July 1987; or born in India after 1 July 1987 with at least one Indian parent
• By Descent — Born outside India to an Indian citizen parent (with registration conditions)
• By Registration — Persons of Indian origin residing abroad; spouse of an Indian citizen after 7 years of residence
• By Naturalization — Foreign national who has resided in India for 11 years (with the last 12 months continuous)
• By Incorporation of Territory — When a new territory is added to India

6.3 Termination of Citizenship

• Renunciation — Citizen voluntarily gives up Indian citizenship
• Termination — Citizen acquires citizenship of another country automatically
• Deprivation — Government can deprive citizenship if obtained by fraud, disloyalty, or criminal activity

6.4 OCI and PIO

• PIO (Person of Indian Origin) card was discontinued and merged with OCI in 2015
• OCI (Overseas Citizen of India) — gives lifelong multiple-entry visa to India; does NOT mean dual citizenship; OCI holders cannot vote, hold constitutional offices, or purchase agricultural land in India
• India does NOT allow dual citizenship

SSC One-Liners — Citizenship

• Citizenship articles in Constitution: 5 to 11
• Citizenship Act passed: 1955
• Naturalization requires: 11 years of residence (last 12 months continuous)
• India provides: Single citizenship only
• OCI: Lifelong visa; cannot vote in Indian elections
• PIO card merged with OCI in: 2015

7. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS (Articles 12–35)

7.1 Overview

Fundamental Rights are justiciable — they can be enforced in courts of law. Originally the Constitution recognised 7 Fundamental Rights. After the 44th Amendment 1978, the Right to Property was removed from Fundamental Rights and placed as a legal right under Article 300A. Now India has 6 Fundamental Rights.

7.2 Six Fundamental Rights

7.3 Five Constitutional Writs

🧠 Mnemonic for Five Writs: "HMCPQ" = He Must Come Promptly for Questioning = Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Certiorari, Prohibition, Quo Warranto

Key Difference — Article 32 vs Article 226:

• Article 32 (Supreme Court) — issues writs only for enforcement of Fundamental Rights
• Article 226 (High Court) — issues writs for enforcement of Fundamental Rights AND any other legal right; wider jurisdiction than Supreme Court
• High Court can issue writs against private bodies too; Supreme Court under Art. 32 generally cannot

7.4 Important Facts

• Article 12 defines "State" for the purpose of Fundamental Rights
• Article 13 declares any law inconsistent with Fundamental Rights as void
• Fundamental Rights available to both citizens and foreigners: Articles 14, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25–28
• Fundamental Rights available to citizens only: Articles 15, 16, 19, 29, 30
• During National Emergency, Fundamental Rights can be suspended — but Articles 20 and 21 can NEVER be suspended
• Article 32 is itself a Fundamental Right

7.5 Landmark Constitutional Cases

• Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) — Basic Structure doctrine established; Parliament cannot destroy the basic structure of the Constitution even through amendment
• Maneka Gandhi Case (1978) — Article 21 expanded greatly; procedure for depriving life and liberty must be "fair, just, and reasonable"
• Minerva Mills Case (1980) — Balance between Fundamental Rights and DPSP is part of the basic structure
• Indra Sawhney Case (1992) — 50% cap on total reservations; creamy layer principle for OBCs
• S. R. Bommai Case (1994) — Strict guidelines for imposition of President's Rule; federalism is part of basic structure
• K. S. Puttaswamy Case (2017) — Right to Privacy declared a Fundamental Right under Article 21

SSC One-Liners — Fundamental Rights

• Number of Fundamental Rights currently: 6
• Right to Property removed by: 44th Amendment, 1978 — placed under Article 300A
• Article 21 expanded in: Maneka Gandhi Case, 1978
• Right to Privacy declared FR: K. S. Puttaswamy Case, 2017
• "Heart and soul of Constitution": Article 32 (Ambedkar)
• Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended even during: National Emergency
• Article 21A added by: 86th Amendment, 2002

8. FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES (Article 51A)

8.1 Background

• Fundamental Duties were added to the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment, 1976
• Added on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee
• Placed in Part IV-A, Article 51A
• Inspired by the Constitution of the USSR
• Originally 10 duties were added; the 86th Amendment, 2002 added the 11th duty
• These duties are non-justiciable — they cannot be directly enforced in a court of law
• These duties apply to citizens only, not to foreigners

8.2 All 11 Fundamental Duties

1. Abide by the Constitution and respect the national flag and national anthem
2. Cherish and follow the noble ideals of the freedom struggle
3. Uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India
4. Defend the country and render national service when called upon
5. Promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood among all people; renounce practices derogatory to women
6. Value and preserve the rich heritage of India's composite culture
7. Protect and improve the natural environment — forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife
8. Develop scientific temper, humanism, and the spirit of inquiry and reform
9. Safeguard public property and abjure violence
10. Strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity
11. Duty of parents/guardians to provide opportunities for education to their child between ages 6–14 years (added by 86th Amendment, 2002)

🧠 Memory Trick: Duty No. 11 (Education) was added by the same 86th Amendment (2002) that added Article 21A (Free education for children 6–14 years as a Fundamental Right).

SSC One-Liners — Fundamental Duties

• Added by: 42nd Amendment, 1976
• Recommended by: Swaran Singh Committee
• Located in: Part IV-A, Article 51A
• Inspired from: USSR Constitution
• Originally: 10 duties (11th added by 86th Amendment 2002)
• Nature: Non-justiciable
• Apply to: Citizens only

9. DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY (DPSP)

9.1 Overview

• Articles 36 to 51 in Part IV of the Constitution
• Borrowed from the Constitution of Ireland
• Non-justiciable — cannot be enforced in courts but fundamental in the governance of the country
• Represent the socialistic and welfare content of the Constitution
• They impose positive obligations on the State — what the State "shall" do

9.2 Classification of DPSPs

9.3 Fundamental Rights vs DPSP — Comparison

SSC One-Liners — DPSP

• DPSP borrowed from: Ireland
• Located in: Part IV, Articles 36–51
• Uniform Civil Code: Article 44
• Village Panchayats: Article 40
• Equal pay for equal work: Article 39(d)
• Environment protection added by: 42nd Amendment — Article 48A
• Cooperative societies added by: 97th Amendment — Article 43B
• Minerva Mills Case (1980): Balance between FR and DPSP is basic structure

10. PRESIDENT AND VICE PRESIDENT

10.1 President — Key Facts (Articles 52–78)

10.2 Veto Powers of the President

10.3 Emergency Powers of the President

• Article 352 — Proclamation of National Emergency (War, external aggression, or armed rebellion)
• Article 356 — State Emergency / President's Rule (Failure of constitutional machinery in a State)
• Article 360 — Financial Emergency (Threat to financial stability or credit of India)

10.4 Vice President (Articles 63–71)

• Elected by members of both Houses of Parliament — including both elected AND nominated members
• This is different from the President's electoral college (which does not include nominated members)
• Term: 5 years
• Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha
• Acts as President when the President's post is vacant or when the President is unable to discharge functions
• Removal: Resolution passed by the Rajya Sabha by an effective majority and agreed to by the Lok Sabha; 14 days' advance notice required
• No specific grounds stated for removal — unlike the President's impeachment

10.5 President vs Governor — Comparison Table

SSC One-Liners — President and Vice President

• President's election: Indirect — by Electoral College
• Electoral College for President: Elected MPs + Elected MLAs (no nominated members)
• Electoral College for Vice President: Both elected AND nominated MPs
• President impeached under: Article 61
• VP is ex-officio Chairman of: Rajya Sabha
• President's oath by: Chief Justice of India
• Governor's oath by: Chief Justice of the High Court
• Pocket Veto widest in: India (among democracies)

11. PARLIAMENT OF INDIA

11.1 Composition

Parliament of India consists of three parts: President + Rajya Sabha + Lok Sabha (Article 79)

11.2 Lok Sabha vs Rajya Sabha — Comparison

11.3 Sessions of Parliament

• Budget Session — February to May (longest session of the year)
• Monsoon Session — July to August
• Winter Session — November to December
• Minimum 2 sessions per year required; gap between two sessions cannot exceed 6 months
• Prorogation — ends a session (done by President on advice of the Cabinet)
• Adjournment — temporary suspension of a sitting (Speaker's power)
• Dissolution — only of Lok Sabha; Rajya Sabha is never dissolved

11.4 Speaker of Lok Sabha

• Elected by Lok Sabha members from among themselves
• Holds office during the entire life of the Lok Sabha
• Casts a casting vote only in the event of a tie (does not vote in normal proceedings)
• Removal: By a resolution passed by an effective majority of all then-members of Lok Sabha (requires 14 days' advance notice)
• First Speaker of Lok Sabha: G. V. Mavalankar
• First Woman Speaker of Lok Sabha: Meira Kumar
• Parliamentary privileges of MPs: Article 105

11.5 Money Bill (Article 110)

• Deals exclusively with: taxation, government borrowing, Consolidated Fund, Contingency Fund, custody of funds, audit of accounts
• Certified by the Speaker of Lok Sabha
• Can be introduced only in Lok Sabha; Rajya Sabha cannot introduce, amend, or reject a Money Bill
• Rajya Sabha must return within 14 days (with or without recommendations; Lok Sabha is not bound to accept)
• President can only give assent or withhold assent — cannot return a Money Bill for reconsideration
• Finance Bill is different from a Money Bill — Finance Bill deals with taxation proposals but may not exclusively deal with money matters

11.6 Joint Sitting of Parliament (Article 108)

• Called by the President in three situations:
  • A bill is rejected by the other House
  • The other House passes the bill with amendments unacceptable to the originating House
  • The bill has been pending in the other House for more than 6 months
• Presided over by the Speaker of Lok Sabha
• Passed by simple majority of members present and voting in the joint sitting
• Joint sittings held in India so far — 3 times:
  1. Dowry Prohibition Bill (1961)
  2. Banking Service Commission (Repeal) Bill (1978)
  3. Prevention of Terrorism Bill / POTA (2002)
• Cannot be called for: Money Bills; Constitutional Amendment Bills; Finance Bills

SSC One-Liners — Parliament

• First Speaker of Lok Sabha: G. V. Mavalankar
• First Woman Speaker: Meira Kumar
• Joint sitting presided by: Speaker of Lok Sabha
• Joint sittings held so far: 3 times
• Money Bill article: 110
• Joint sitting article: 108
• RS to return Money Bill within: 14 days
• Voting age reduced to 18 by: 61st Amendment, 1988
• 104th Amendment (2020): Ended Anglo-Indian nominated seats

12. GOVERNOR

12.1 Key Facts about the Governor

• Constitutional head of a State (Article 153)
• Appointed by the President of India (Article 155)
• Holds office at the pleasure of the President (Article 156) — no fixed security of tenure
• Qualifications: Indian citizen; minimum 35 years of age; not a member of Parliament or State Legislature; not hold any office of profit
• Salary charged to the Consolidated Fund of the State
• One person can be Governor of two or more states (Article 153)
• More discretionary powers than the President in practical terms

12.2 Discretionary Powers of the Governor

• Sending a report to the President recommending President's Rule under Article 356
• Reserving a bill passed by State Legislature for consideration of the President (Article 200)
• Appointing Chief Minister when no party has a clear majority in the legislature
• Dismissing the Council of Ministers when it has lost the confidence of the legislature
• Dissolution of the State Legislative Assembly

SSC One-Liners — Governor

• Governor appointed by: President of India
• Governor holds office at: Pleasure of President
• Governor's oath by: Chief Justice of High Court
• Governor can recommend: President's Rule (Art. 356)
• Governor reserving bill for President: Article 200
• Punchhi Commission (2010): Recommended limiting Governor's discretionary powers

13. STATE LEGISLATURE

13.1 Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha)

• Lower House of State Legislature (directly elected)
• Maximum strength: 500 members; minimum 60 members
• Exception: Goa (40), Sikkim (32), Mizoram (40), Puducherry (30)
• Term: 5 years (subject to dissolution)
• Minimum age: 25 years
• Presiding officer: Speaker (elected by members)

13.2 Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad)

• Upper House of State Legislature (not all states have it)
• Currently 6 states have Legislative Councils: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
• Maximum strength: 1/3rd of Assembly's total strength; minimum 40 members
• Permanent House — cannot be dissolved; 1/3rd retire every 2 years; each member serves 6 years
• Minimum age: 30 years
• Creation/abolition: By Parliament on the request of the State Legislative Assembly (Article 169)

SSC One-Liners — State Legislature

• States with Legislative Council: 6 (UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, AP, Telangana)
• Maximum strength of Vidhan Sabha: 500
• Minimum strength of Vidhan Sabha: 60 (exceptions exist)
• LC is a: Permanent House (like Rajya Sabha)
• LC created/abolished by: Parliament (Article 169)

14. JUDICIARY

14.1 Supreme Court vs High Court — Comparison

14.2 Judicial Review and Judicial Activism

• Judicial Review — Power of courts to examine the constitutional validity of laws and executive actions; derived from Articles 13, 32, 226, and 246; concept borrowed from USA
• Judicial Activism — Courts going beyond their traditional role to ensure justice; fills gaps where legislature and executive are inactive
• Public Interest Litigation (PIL) — Any citizen can approach the Supreme Court or High Court for public interest matters; concept introduced in India by Justice P. N. Bhagwati and Justice V. R. Krishna Iyer in the late 1970s and early 1980s

14.3 Lok Adalat

• Established under the Legal Services Authority Act, 1987
• Awards made by Lok Adalat are deemed decrees of a civil court — final and binding
• No appeal lies against a Lok Adalat award in any court
• No court fee is charged — refunded if case is settled
• National Lok Adalat is held at regular intervals across India simultaneously
• Deals with motor accident claims, labour disputes, matrimonial cases (except divorce), electricity disputes, etc.

SSC One-Liners — Judiciary

• Supreme Court established by: Article 124
• SC judges' retirement age: 65 years
• HC judges' retirement age: 62 years
• Writ jurisdiction of SC: Article 32 (FR only)
• Writ jurisdiction of HC: Article 226 (wider — any legal right)
• PIL introduced by: Justice P. N. Bhagwati
• Lok Adalat awards: Final and binding — no appeal
• Judicial Review borrowed from: USA
• Basic Structure doctrine: Kesavananda Bharati Case, 1973

15. UNION AND STATES

15.1 Articles 1 to 4

15.2 Union Territories

• Currently 8 Union Territories in India:
  1. Delhi (NCT) — has Legislature
  2. Puducherry — has Legislature
  3. Jammu & Kashmir — has Legislature (created by J&K Reorganisation Act 2019)
  4. Chandigarh
  5. Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu (merged in 2020)
  6. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
  7. Lakshadweep
  8. Ladakh

SSC One-Liners — Union and States

• India described as: "Union of States" — not a federation (Article 1)
• New State formation: Article 3 (Parliament can alter without State's consent)
• Currently 8 Union Territories
• J&K became UT by: J&K Reorganisation Act, 2019
• Dadra-Daman-Diu merged: 2020

16. PANCHAYATI RAJ AND URBAN LOCAL BODIES

16.1 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992) — Panchayati Raj

• Added Part IX (Articles 243 to 243O) and 11th Schedule (29 subjects)
• Gave constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj System
• Three-tier system: Gram Panchayat → Panchayat Samiti (Block/Taluka Level) → Zila Parishad (District Level)
• Gram Sabha — General body of all registered voters in a village; forms the foundation of the Panchayati Raj system
• Reservation: Proportional reservation for SC and ST; minimum 1/3rd seats reserved for women (many states have extended to 50%)
• Term: 5 years; fresh elections before expiry
• State Election Commission — conducts Panchayati Raj elections
• State Finance Commission — constituted every 5 years to review financial position

Important Committees on Panchayati Raj:

• Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957) — First committee; recommended three-tier Panchayati Raj system
• Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) — Recommended two-tier system (Zila Parishad + Mandal Panchayat)
• L. M. Singhvi Committee (1986) — Recommended giving constitutional status to Panchayati Raj
• First Panchayati Raj system launched: Rajasthan (Nagaur district), 2 October 1959 by PM Nehru

16.2 74th Constitutional Amendment (1992) — Urban Local Bodies

• Added Part IX-A and 12th Schedule (18 subjects)
• Gave constitutional status to Urban Local Bodies
• Three types: Nagar Panchayat (transitional areas), Municipal Council (smaller urban areas), Municipal Corporation (larger cities)
• Ward Committees mandatory for cities with population over 3 lakh
• Reservation for SC/ST and minimum 1/3rd for women

SSC One-Liners — Panchayati Raj

• 73rd Amendment: 1992 — Panchayati Raj
• 74th Amendment: 1992 — Urban Local Bodies
• Part IX added by: 73rd Amendment
• 11th Schedule: 29 subjects (Panchayat)
• 12th Schedule: 18 subjects (Municipalities)
• First PR system: Rajasthan, 2 October 1959
• Balwant Rai Mehta Committee recommended: Three-tier system
• L. M. Singhvi Committee recommended: Constitutional status

17. EMERGENCY PROVISIONS

17.1 Three Types of Emergency

17.2 National Emergency — Proclaimed 3 Times

1. 1962 — During the India-China war
2. 1971 — During the India-Pakistan war
3. 1975 — On grounds of "internal disturbance" — most controversial; proclaimed by PM Indira Gandhi's government; lasted until 1977

17.3 Key Facts

• 44th Amendment (1978) changed "internal disturbance" to "armed rebellion" — making it harder to impose National Emergency
• S. R. Bommai Case (1994) — strictly restricted the arbitrary use of President's Rule under Article 356
• During National Emergency — Parliament can legislate on State List subjects
• President's Rule has been imposed most frequently in: Uttar Pradesh
• Financial Emergency: Never proclaimed in India's history

SSC One-Liners — Emergency

• National Emergency: Article 352
• President's Rule: Article 356
• Financial Emergency: Article 360
• National Emergency proclaimed: 3 times (1962, 1971, 1975)
• Financial Emergency: Never proclaimed
• "Internal disturbance" changed to "armed rebellion" by: 44th Amendment, 1978
• S. R. Bommai Case restricted: President's Rule (Art. 356)
• Arts. 20 and 21 cannot be suspended even in: National Emergency

18. CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS

18.1 Amendment Procedure (Article 368)

Three methods of amending the Constitution:

• Simple majority — by ordinary legislation (e.g., admission of new States)
• Special majority — 2/3rd majority of members present and voting + majority of total membership of each House
• Special majority + ratification by at least half the State Legislatures — for federal provisions (e.g., election of President, powers of Supreme Court)

18.2 Important Constitutional Amendments

🧠 Memory Tricks for Key Amendments:

• 42 = MAXI (Maximum changes — the "Mini Constitution" — added the most provisions)
• 44 = RESTORE (Restored democracy, removed Property Right from FR)
• 52 = DEFECT (Anti-Defection Law — 52nd)
• 61 = VOTE at 18 (Voting age reduced — 61st)
• 86 = SCHOOL (Right to Education — 86th)
• 101 = GST (One nation, one tax — 101st)
• 103 = EWS (10% for economically weak — 103rd)

SSC One-Liners — Amendments

• 42nd Amendment called: "Mini Constitution"
• Voting age reduced by: 61st Amendment, 1988
• GST introduced by: 101st Amendment, 2016
• EWS reservation by: 103rd Amendment, 2019
• Women's reservation (33%) by: 106th Amendment, 2023
• Anti-Defection by: 52nd Amendment, 1985
• Right to Education (Art. 21A) by: 86th Amendment, 2002

19. CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES

SSC One-Liners — Constitutional Bodies

• CAG article: 148
• Attorney General article: 76
• Finance Commission article: 280
• Election Commission article: 324
• UPSC article: 315
• NCBC given constitutional status by: 102nd Amendment, 2018
• Finance Commission constituted every: 5 years
• CAG reports placed before: President (for Union) / Governor (for State)
• First CEC of India: Sukumar Sen

20. ELECTION SYSTEM

20.1 Election Commission of India

• Established on 25 January 1950 (celebrated as National Voters' Day)
• Article 324 — Superintendence, direction, and control of elections vested in the Election Commission
• Originally a single-member body (only CEC); made multi-member in 1989
• First Chief Election Commissioner: Sukumar Sen
• T. N. Seshan (CEC 1990–96) transformed the Election Commission — enforced Model Code of Conduct strictly

20.2 Anti-Defection Law (10th Schedule)

• Added by 52nd Amendment, 1985
• A legislator is disqualified if:
  • Voluntarily gives up membership of the party
  • Votes or abstains from voting contrary to the party's direction (whip) without permission
• Merger exemption: If at least 2/3rd of members of a legislature party merge with another party, it is not considered defection
• Decision on disqualification: Made by the Speaker/Chairman of the House
• Kihoto Hollohan Case (1992) — Supreme Court upheld the 10th Schedule's validity but said courts can review Speaker's decision

20.3 NOTA and EVM

• NOTA (None of the Above) — introduced in 2013 for State Assembly elections; introduced for Lok Sabha elections from 2014
• EVM (Electronic Voting Machine) — first used in 1982 (Parur constituency, Kerala); used nationwide from 2004 General Elections
• VVPAT (Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail) — introduced nationwide from the 2019 General Elections

SSC One-Liners — Election System

• Election Commission established: 25 January 1950
• First CEC: Sukumar Sen
• Anti-Defection: 10th Schedule, 52nd Amendment, 1985
• EVM first used: 1982 (Parur, Kerala)
• NOTA introduced nationwide: 2014 Lok Sabha elections
• VVPAT used nationwide: 2019 General Elections
• Merger exemption in Anti-Defection: 2/3rd of members

21. NATIONAL SYMBOLS OF INDIA

21.1 22 Languages of the 8th Schedule

Original 14 languages (1950) have been expanded to 22 languages currently.

All 22 Languages: Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu

Recently Added (by 92nd Amendment, 2003): Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santali — these four languages were added together

🧠 Memory Trick for 4 newly added languages: "BDMS" = Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santali

21.2 Official Language Provisions

• Article 343 — Hindi in Devanagari script is the official language of the Union
• Article 344 — Official Language Commission
• Article 351 — Duty of the Union to promote the spread of Hindi
• English continues as an official language alongside Hindi under the Official Languages Act, 1963
• Three-language formula applicable to states

SSC One-Liners — Symbols and Language

• National Flag designed by: Pingali Venkaiah
• National Flag adopted: 22 July 1947
• National Emblem adopted: 26 January 1950
• "Satyameva Jayate" from: Mundaka Upanishad
• National Anthem adopted: 24 January 1950
• National Animal: Bengal Tiger (changed from lion in 1973)
• National Aquatic Animal: River Dolphin
• Saka Calendar adopted: 22 March 1957
• 8th Schedule languages: 22
• 4 languages added by 92nd Amendment: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santali
• Official Language article: 343

22. RTI, LOKPAL, GST AND MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

22.1 Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005

• Came into force on 12 October 2005
• Citizens can request information from public authorities within 30 days from the date of application
• Information related to life and liberty — must be provided within 48 hours
• Central Information Commission (CIC) at the apex level; State Information Commissions at State level
• Not applicable to: intelligence and security organisations, Cabinet papers, personal information with no public interest
• RTI Amendment 2019 — CIC and SIC commissioners' tenure and salary can now be determined by the Central Government

22.2 Lokpal and Lokayukta

• Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 — enacted after long agitation led by Anna Hazare
• First Lokpal of India: Justice Pinaki Chandra Ghose (appointed 2019)
• Lokpal investigates corruption allegations against public servants including the Prime Minister (with conditions)
• Lokayukta — equivalent institution at State level
• Concept based on the Scandinavian Ombudsman institution
• First Administrative Reforms Commission (1966) first recommended a Lokpal for India

22.3 Goods and Services Tax (GST)

• GST implemented from 1 July 2017
• "One Nation, One Tax, One Market"
• Enabled by the 101st Constitutional Amendment, 2016
• Articles 246A, 269A, and 279A added to the Constitution
• GST Council — Chairman: Union Finance Minister; members include Finance Ministers of all States
• GST replaced: Central Excise Duty, Service Tax, VAT, CST, Entertainment Tax, and many other taxes
• India follows a dual GST structure — Central GST (CGST) + State GST (SGST) + Integrated GST (IGST)

22.4 Women's Reservation

• 106th Constitutional Amendment, 2023 — provides 33% reservation for women in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies
• Will come into effect only after the next Census is conducted and delimitation of constituencies is done
• Reservation applies to SC and ST seats proportionally within the reserved quota
• Rajya Sabha and State Legislative Councils are NOT covered under this reservation

SSC One-Liners — Miscellaneous

• RTI Act came into force: 12 October 2005
• RTI information deadline: 30 days (48 hours for life/liberty)
• First Lokpal: Justice Pinaki Chandra Ghose (2019)
• GST launched: 1 July 2017
• GST amendment: 101st Amendment, 2016
• Women's reservation (33%): 106th Amendment, 2023
• NOTA introduced: 2013 (State), 2014 (Lok Sabha)

CHAPTER SUMMARY — QUICK REVISION TABLE

FREQUENTLY CONFUSED FACTS