Ancient History

Ancient History is one of the most scoring and regularly tested topics in SSC CGL General Awareness. Every year, 1 to 3 questions directly come from Ancient History. The period covers India's story from the earliest human settlements to approximately 1200 CE. Students who master this section gain a significant advantage because these questions are factual, predictable and can be answered in seconds with proper preparation.

This chapter covers every important topic of Ancient India - from the Stone Age to the Rajput period - in a structured, exam-focused manner. Each section highlights the facts that SSC has asked repeatedly over the years.

1. Stone Age

The Stone Age refers to the prehistoric period when human beings used stone tools for survival. It is divided into three phases based on the type of tools and lifestyle of the people.

1.1 Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age) - 500,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE

• Humans were hunters and food gatherers
• They had no knowledge of farming or animal rearing
• They lived in caves and rock shelters
• Tools were made of rough, unpolished stone - called core tools and flake tools
• Fire was discovered during this period
• Painted rock shelters found at Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) - a UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Important sites: Sohan Valley, Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh), Kurnool Caves (Andhra Pradesh)

1.2 Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age) - 10,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE

• A transitional phase between Old and New Stone Age
• Tools became smaller and sharper - called Microliths
• Humans started domesticating animals like dogs and cattle
• Evidence of fishing and hunting with bows and arrows
• People lived near rivers and lakes
• Important sites: Bagor (Rajasthan), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh)

1.3 Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) - 8,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE

• Humans learned agriculture and settled in permanent villages
• Polished stone tools were used
• Pottery making began
• Wheel was invented
• Domestication of animals became widespread
• Important sites: Mehrgarh (Balochistan - oldest Neolithic site in the subcontinent), Burzahom (Kashmir), Piklihal and Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Chirand (Bihar)

Important SSC Facts - Stone Age

• Bhimbetka rock shelters are India's most famous Paleolithic site
• Mehrgarh is the oldest known agricultural site in the Indian subcontinent
• The term Paleolithic was coined by John Lubbock

2. Indus Valley Civilisation (3300 BCE - 1300 BCE)

2.1 Introduction

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was the world's largest ancient urban civilisation. It flourished in the northwestern regions of South Asia. It is also known as the Harappan Civilisation after the first site discovered.

• Period: 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE (Mature phase: 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE)
• Geographical spread: Pakistan, Northwest India, Afghanistan
• Discovered by: Sir John Marshall in 1921
• Contemporary civilisations: Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Egypt

2.2 Town Planning

The town planning of IVC was its most remarkable feature. Cities were divided into two parts:

• Citadel (Upper Town): For the ruling class, public buildings and granaries
• Lower Town: For the common people - residential areas

Key features of town planning:

• Streets were laid in a grid pattern - roads cut each other at right angles
• Houses were made of standardised baked bricks
• Every house had its own well, bathroom and drainage
• Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro - the most famous public building, used for ritualistic bathing
• Great Granary found at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa - used for storing grain

2.3 Drainage System

• Most advanced drainage system of the ancient world
• Every house connected to a main street drain
• Drains were covered with bricks or stone slabs
• Drainage flowed from east to west - showing knowledge of hygiene
• Even smaller lanes had drainage

2.4 Economy

• Agriculture: Wheat, barley, cotton, sesame and dates were grown
• Trade: Extensive internal and external trade with Mesopotamia (Iraq)
• Evidence of barter system and use of standardised weights and measures
• Lothal (Gujarat) had the world's first known dockyard
• Bronze tools and copper implements were used
• Cotton was first cultivated here - called Sindon by Greeks

2.5 Religion

• No large temples found - suggests no organised religion
• Mother Goddess worship was most prominent
• Pashupati Seal - shows a figure seated in yogic posture surrounded by animals - considered an early form of Shiva
• Tree worship (Peepal tree) was practiced
• Fire altars found at Kalibangan
• Evidence of animal worship - humped bull was highly revered

2.6 Script

• IVC people had their own script
• Over 400 symbols have been identified
• Written from right to left (and sometimes boustrophedon - alternating directions)
• Script has not been deciphered till date
• Found mainly on seals

2.7 Important Sites and Discoveries

2.8 Important Exam Facts

• Harappa discovered by Dayaram Sahni (1921)
• Mohenjo-daro discovered by R.D. Banerjee (1922)
• Mohenjo-daro means Mound of the Dead in Sindhi
• Dholavira is famous for its water management system and a large inscription
• The IVC declined around 1900 BCE - possible reasons include floods, climate change and Aryan invasion (debated)
• Bronze Dancing Girl and Priest King statue are famous artefacts from Mohenjo-daro
• Unicorn seal is the most commonly found seal in IVC
• IVC people did not know about iron

3. Vedic Civilisation (1500 BCE - 600 BCE)

3.1 Introduction

The Vedic Civilisation refers to the period when the Aryans settled in the Indian subcontinent and composed the Vedas - the oldest religious texts of Hinduism. This period is divided into two phases.

3.2 Early Vedic Period (1500 BCE - 1000 BCE)

• Aryans settled in the region called Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers - Punjab and Haryana region)
• Semi-nomadic lifestyle - cattle herding was main occupation
• Rigveda was composed during this period - the oldest Veda
• Tribal society with the tribe called Jana or Vis
• Leader was called Rajan (king) - not hereditary, chosen by tribe
• Society was divided into three classes: Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya (Shudra added later)
• Women had relatively high status - attended assemblies called Sabha and Samiti
• Main deities: Indra (god of war and storms), Agni (fire), Varuna (water), Surya (sun)
• Cows were the measure of wealth
• Yajnas (fire sacrifices) were the main form of worship

3.3 Later Vedic Period (1000 BCE - 600 BCE)

• Aryans expanded to Ganga-Yamuna plains (called Aryavarta)
• Agriculture became the main occupation - iron tools used for farming
• Varna system became rigid and hereditary - based on birth not occupation
• Gotra system developed - lineage groups
• King became more powerful - Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Rajasuya (coronation ceremony) performed
• Three new Vedas composed: Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda
• Upanishads composed - philosophical texts questioning rituals
• Women's status declined - excluded from religious ceremonies
• 16 Mahajanapadas emerged at the end of this period

3.4 Four Vedas

3.5 Important Terms

• Brahma: The cosmic principle - God
• Sabha: Assembly of elders
• Samiti: General assembly of all tribe members
• Vidatha: Earliest assembly in Rigveda
• Gramani: Head of village
• Gavishthi: Literally means search for cows - referred to battle
• Goghna: Killer of cow - a guest in early Vedic period (cow was slaughtered to welcome guests)
• Dasas/Dasyus: Dark-skinned people conquered by Aryans
• Vraja: Cow pen

4. Mahajanapadas (600 BCE - 325 BCE)

4.1 Introduction

By the 6th century BCE, the political landscape of India had transformed dramatically. Tribal kingdoms consolidated into larger territorial states called Mahajanapadas (great realms). There were 16 Mahajanapadas according to Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya.

4.2 The 16 Mahajanapadas and Their Capitals

4.3 Important Features

• Most Mahajanapadas were monarchies but Vajji (Vaishali) was a republic - the world's first known republic
• Vaishali had an elected assembly - considered a proto-democracy
• Kashi, Kosala, Magadha and Avanti were the most powerful kingdoms
• Magadha eventually absorbed all others and became the dominant power
• Coins (Karshapanas or Punch-marked coins) came into use during this period

5. Rise of Magadha

5.1 Why Magadha Rose to Power

Magadha, located in present-day Bihar, had several geographical and strategic advantages:

• Located at the junction of major trade routes
• Rich in iron ore and copper deposits
• Fertile Gangetic plains - agricultural surplus
• Elephants available in forests - used in warfare
• Two great rivers: Ganga and Son - natural protection

5.2 Haryanka Dynasty (544 BCE - 412 BCE)

Bimbisara (544-492 BCE):

• First important ruler of Magadha
• Founded Rajagriha (Rajgir) as capital
• Followed policy of matrimonial alliances - married princesses from Vaishali, Kosala and Madra
• Contemporary of both Buddha and Mahavira
• Introduced a system of roads and efficient administration
• Imprisoned and killed by his son Ajatashatru

Ajatashatru (492-460 BCE):

• Also known as Kunika
• Defeated and annexed Kosala and Vajji (Vaishali) - it took him 16 years to defeat Vaishali
• Used two weapons: Mahashilakantak (catapult) and Rathamusal (chariot with mace)
• Patron of Buddhism - held First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha after Buddha's death

5.3 Shishunaga Dynasty (412-344 BCE)

• Founded by Shishunaga
• Destroyed the power of Avanti
• Kalashoka held the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali

5.4 Nanda Dynasty (344-322 BCE)

• Founded by Mahapadma Nanda - first non-Kshatriya (Shudra origin) to rule Magadha
• Called Ekarat (sole sovereign) and Sarva Kshatrantaka (destroyer of all Kshatriyas)
• Built up a large army
• Last Nanda ruler Dhana Nanda was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya
• Alexander the Great invaded northwest India during Dhana Nanda's reign

6. Jainism

6.1 Introduction

Jainism is one of India's oldest religions. It preaches non-violence, truth and non-attachment as the path to spiritual liberation. It has 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers who have attained enlightenment).

6.2 Vardhamana Mahavira - The Last Tirthankara

• Born: 540 BCE at Kundagrama near Vaishali (Bihar)
• Father: Siddhartha (chief of Licchavi clan)
• Mother: Trishala (sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka)
• His symbol was a lion
• At age 30, he renounced worldly life
• Attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience) after 12 years of penance at Jrimbhikagrama
• Called Mahavira (great hero) and Jina (conqueror) - hence the religion is called Jainism
• Died: 468 BCE at Pavapuri (Bihar)
• Contemporary of Gautama Buddha

6.3 24 Tirthankaras

• First Tirthankara: Rishabhadeva (Adinatha) - his symbol was a bull
• 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanatha - his symbol was a serpent
• 24th Tirthankara: Vardhamana Mahavira
• Only Mahavira and Parshvanatha are considered historical figures

6.4 Principles and Teachings

Three Jewels of Jainism (Triratna):

• Samyak Darshana - Right Faith
• Samyak Jnana - Right Knowledge
• Samyak Charitra - Right Conduct

Five Great Vows (Panchamahavratas):

1. Ahimsa - Non-violence (most important)
2. Satya - Truthfulness
3. Asteya - Non-stealing
4. Brahmacharya - Celibacy (added by Mahavira)
5. Aparigraha - Non-possession

Note: Parshvanatha taught only four vows. Mahavira added Brahmacharya as the fifth.

6.5 Two Sects of Jainism

• The split happened around 300 BCE due to a famine in Magadha
• Sthulabhadra led the Shvetambara group
• Bhadrabahu led the Digambara group to South India

7. Buddhism

7.1 Life of Gautama Buddha

• Born: 563 BCE at Lumbini (Nepal) - under a sal tree
• Father: Suddhodana - King of Kapilavastu (Shakya clan)
• Mother: Mayadevi (died 7 days after his birth)
• Foster mother: Prajapati Gautami
• Wife: Yashodhara
• Son: Rahula
• Original name: Siddhartha Gautama
• At age 29: Left home (called Mahabhinishkramana - the Great Renunciation)
• His charioteer was Channa and horse was Kanthaka
• Studied under teachers Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta
• Attained enlightenment: Bodh Gaya (Bihar) under a Peepal tree (Bodhi Tree) at age 35
• First sermon: Sarnath (Deer Park/Isipatana) near Varanasi - called Dhammachakkapavattana (Turning of the Wheel of Dharma)
• Five disciples who heard first sermon: Kondanna, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama, Assaji
• Died: 483 BCE at Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh) - called Mahaparinirvana
• Age at death: 80 years

7.2 Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya)

1. Dukkha - Life is full of suffering
2. Samudaya - There is a cause of suffering (desire/craving)
3. Nirodha - Suffering can be ended
4. Magga - There is a path to end suffering (Eightfold Path)

7.3 The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

1. Right View (Samyak Drishti)
2. Right Intention (Samyak Sankalpa)
3. Right Speech (Samyak Vak)
4. Right Action (Samyak Karmanta)
5. Right Livelihood (Samyak Ajiva)
6. Right Effort (Samyak Vyayama)
7. Right Mindfulness (Samyak Smriti)
8. Right Concentration (Samyak Samadhi)

7.4 Buddhist Councils

7.5 Three Jewels of Buddhism

• Buddha - The Enlightened One
• Dhamma - The Teaching
• Sangha - The Community of monks

7.6 Important Buddhist Terms and Places

7.7 Important Buddhist Sites

8. Mauryan Empire (322 BCE - 185 BCE)

8.1 Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BCE)

• Overthrew the last Nanda ruler Dhana Nanda with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya)
• Founded the Mauryan Empire in 322 BCE
• Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna)
• Defeated Seleucus Nicator (Alexander's general) around 305 BCE
• Peace treaty with Seleucus - got territories including Afghanistan and Balochistan
• Megasthenes was sent by Seleucus as ambassador to Chandragupta's court
• Later adopted Jainism under the influence of Jain monk Bhadrabahu
• Migrated to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) and died by Sallekhana (fasting unto death)

8.2 Chanakya (Kautilya/Vishnugupta)

• Prime minister and mentor of Chandragupta Maurya
• Author of Arthashastra - a treatise on statecraft, economics and military strategy
• Also wrote Nitishastra and Chanakya Niti
• Called the Indian Machiavelli
• Arthashastra was rediscovered by R. Shamasastry in 1904

8.3 Bindusara (298-273 BCE)

• Son of Chandragupta Maurya
• Also known as Amitraghata (Slayer of Enemies)
• Extended empire to the Deccan plateau
• Greek ambassador Deimachus was at his court
• Father of Ashoka

8.4 Ashoka the Great (268-232 BCE)

Ashoka is considered one of the greatest rulers in world history.

Early Life and Conquest:

• Son of Bindusara and queen Subhadrangi
• Fought Kalinga War in 261 BCE - a devastating conflict that killed over 100,000 people
• Horrified by the destruction, Ashoka converted to Buddhism
• He followed Dhamma (righteousness) as the foundation of his rule

Ashoka's Dhamma:

• Respect for all religions
• Non-violence to animals and humans
• Obedience to parents and elders
• Truthfulness
• Compassion and generosity

Ashoka's Inscriptions: Ashoka spread his messages through rock edicts and pillar edicts across his empire.

• Inscriptions were written in Brahmi script (most), also in Kharosthi and Aramaic
• James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi script in 1837
• Girnar (Gujarat), Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan), Mansehra (Pakistan) are important edict sites

Ashoka's Symbols Used in India:

• Ashoka Chakra - 24-spoked wheel on India's national flag
• Lion Capital of Sarnath - India's national emblem
• Ashoka Pillar - found at Sarnath, Vaishali, Sanchi

8.5 Mauryan Administration

• Highly centralised administration
• Emperor at top → Amatyas (ministers) → Provincial governors → District officials → Village heads
• Empire divided into provinces (Janapadas) governed by princes (Kumara)
• Pataliputra was governed by a municipal commission of 30 members divided into 6 committees
• Arthashastra describes the administrative system in detail
• Spy system was highly developed - spies were called Gudhapurusha
• Sita - royal lands cultivated by state
• Rajuka - revenue officers at district level

8.6 Decline of Mauryan Empire

• Ashoka's successors were weak
• Last Mauryan ruler Brihadratha was killed by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BCE
• This marked the end of the Mauryan Empire and beginning of the Shunga Dynasty

9. Post-Mauryan Period (185 BCE - 320 CE)

9.1 Shunga Dynasty (185-73 BCE)

• Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga after killing Brihadratha Maurya
• Capital: Pataliputra
• Performed Ashvamedha Yagna (horse sacrifice) - revived Brahminism
• Patanjali (author of Mahabhasya - grammar text) was contemporary of Pushyamitra
• Buddhism declined under Shunga rule
• Last ruler Devabhuti killed by Vasudeva (minister) - began Kanva Dynasty

9.2 Satavahana Dynasty (230 BCE - 220 CE)

• Also called Andhra Dynasty
• Founded by Simuka
• Most powerful ruler: Gautamiputra Satakarni
  • Called Ekabrahmana and Kshatriya Darpamana (pride destroyer of Kshatriyas)
  • Defeated Saka (Scythian) ruler Nahapana
• Vashishtiputra Pulumayi - another great ruler
• Capital: Pratishthana (Paithan) on Godavari and later Amaravati
• Issued lead coins and cotton cloth coins
• Patronised Prakrit literature
• Famous for Amaravati Stupa - a masterpiece of Buddhist art
• Contemporary of Kushans and Sakas in north India

9.3 Kushan Dynasty (30-375 CE)

• Central Asian nomads who established an empire in northwest India
• Kujula Kadphises - founded Kushan dynasty in India
• Greatest ruler: Kanishka I (78 CE - 101 CE)

Kanishka I:

• Capital: Purushapura (Peshawar)
• Called the Second Ashoka - great patron of Buddhism
• Held Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir - divided Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana
• His court had scholars like Ashvaghosha (author of Buddhacharita), Vasumitra, Nagarjuna, Charaka (physician)
• Saka Era (78 CE) - believed to have been started during Kanishka's reign - used in India's national calendar
• Kushans facilitated the Silk Route trade between China, India and Rome
• Famous Kanishka Casket found at Peshawar contains Buddha's relics

10. Gupta Empire (320 CE - 550 CE)

10.1 Introduction

The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of India because of its extraordinary achievements in art, science, literature, mathematics and philosophy.

10.2 Rulers of Gupta Dynasty

Chandragupta I (320-335 CE):

• Founded the Gupta Empire
• Took the title Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings)
• Married Kumaradevi of the Lichchhavi clan - important political alliance
• Started the Gupta Era in 320 CE

Samudragupta (335-375 CE):

• Son of Chandragupta I - greatest military conqueror of Gupta dynasty
• Called Napoleon of India by historian V.A. Smith
• His conquests recorded in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription composed by court poet Harishena
• Followed two policies: Dharmavijayas (annexation) in the north and Digvijaya (feudatory in south)
• Was also a great poet and musician - earned the title Kaviraj (king of poets)
• Played Veena (depicted on coins)
• Performed Ashvamedha Yajna

Chandragupta II (375-415 CE) - Vikramaditya:

• Greatest Gupta ruler in terms of cultural achievements
• Also known as Vikramaditya
• Defeated the Sakas and took title Sakari (enemy of Sakas)
• Extended empire from Bengal to the Arabian Sea
• Fa-Hien (Chinese traveller) visited India during his reign
• His court had Nine Gems (Navaratnas) including:
  • Kalidasa (poet and playwright)
  • Aryabhata (mathematician)
  • Varahamihira (astronomer)
  • Dhanvantari (physician)
  • Amarasimha (lexicographer - Amarakosha)

Kumaragupta I (415-455 CE):

• Founded Nalanda University - one of the greatest ancient universities

Skandagupta (455-467 CE):

• Last great Gupta ruler
• Successfully repelled the Huna (White Hun) invasions
• After his death the empire declined rapidly

10.3 Golden Age - Achievements

Mathematics and Science:

• Aryabhata (476-550 CE):
  • Calculated value of Pi (π) = 3.1416
  • Explained that Earth rotates on its axis
  • Calculated the circumference of Earth
  • Proposed a heliocentric model (sun at center)
  • Wrote Aryabhatiya at age 23
  • Introduced concept of zero (0)
• Brahmagupta: Rules of algebra and arithmetic

Astronomy:

• Varahamihira: Wrote Brihat Samhita - encyclopaedia of astronomy, astrology and natural science

Medicine:

• Dhanvantari: Considered god of Ayurveda medicine
• Sushruta (pre-Gupta): Father of Surgery

Literature:

• Kalidasa: Greatest Sanskrit poet and playwright
  • Wrote: Abhijnana Shakuntalam (considered his masterpiece), Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, Malavikagnimitram
• Vishakhadatta: Wrote Mudrarakshasa (play on Chandragupta Maurya)
• Amarasimha: Wrote Amarakosha (Sanskrit dictionary)
• Vishnu Sharma: Wrote Panchatantra (fables - world famous)

Art and Architecture:

• Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra): Cave paintings - peak during Gupta period
• Udayagiri Caves (Madhya Pradesh): Famous Varaha carving
• Deogarh Temple (Uttar Pradesh): Dashavatara Temple - one of earliest Hindu temples
• Iron Pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi): Does not rust even after 1600 years

11. Harshavardhana (606-647 CE)

11.1 Introduction

Harshavardhana was the last great ruler of ancient India who united a large part of northern India.

• Born: 590 CE
• Dynasty: Pushyabhuti/Vardhana dynasty
• Capital: Thanesar (initially) and later Kanauj
• Succeeded his brother Rajyavardhana after his murder by the Malwa king

11.2 Administration and Achievements

• Ruled for 41 years (606-647 CE)
• Unsuccessful in conquering the Deccan - defeated by Pulakesi II (Chalukya king of Vatapi) on the banks of Narmada river
• Converted from Shaivism to Buddhism gradually
• Held Quinquennial Assembly at Prayag (Allahabad) every 5 years - distributed wealth to the poor
• Patron of art and literature
• Wrote three Sanskrit plays: Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika
• Banabhatta - his court poet wrote Harshacharita (biography of Harsha) and Kadambari

11.3 Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang)

• Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited India during Harsha's reign (629-645 CE)
• Stayed at Nalanda University for many years
• His account Si-yu-ki (Records of Western Regions) is a valuable historical source
• Describes India as prosperous with well-governed cities
• Mentions Buddhism was declining in India at that time
• Harsha called him Mokshadeva (god of liberation)

12. South Indian Dynasties

12.1 Early Tamil Kingdoms - Three Crowned Kings (Muvendar)

Cheras:

• Ruled present-day Kerala and western Tamil Nadu
• Capital: Vanji (Karur)
• Famous for trade with Rome - exported pepper, spices
• Famous rulers: Cheran Senguttuvan (built a temple for Kannagi)
• Famous for sea trade

Cholas:

• Ruled northeastern Tamil Nadu and Andhra coast
• Capital: Uraiyur (initially)
• Famous ruler: Karikala Chola - built the Grand Anicut (Kallanai) dam on the Kaveri river - one of the oldest water regulation structures in the world still in use
• Known for literature - Sangam age

Pandyas:

• Ruled southern Tamil Nadu (Madurai region)
• Capital: Madurai
• Famous for trade with Greece and Rome
• Patronised Tamil Sangam (literary assemblies)
• Mentioned in Megasthenes' Indica and Kautilya's Arthashastra

12.2 Pallavas (275-897 CE)

• Ruled from Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu)
• Greatest ruler: Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla)
  • Defeated Chalukya king Pulakesi II and killed him
  • Built Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) monuments
  • Sent naval expeditions to Sri Lanka
• Mahendravarman I: Converted from Jainism to Shaivism, great patron of art
• Famous for Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and Rathas (rock-cut temples)
• Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram - finest Pallava temple

12.3 Chalukyas of Vatapi (543-757 CE)

• Founded by Pulakesi I
• Capital: Vatapi (Badami)
• Greatest ruler: Pulakesi II
  • Defeated Harsha at the Narmada river
  • Sent an embassy to Persian king Khusrau II
  • Defeated by Narasimhavarman I (Pallava)
• Famous cave temples at Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal
• Aihole - called the Cradle of Temple Architecture

12.4 Rashtrakutas (753-982 CE)

• Overthrew the Chalukyas of Vatapi
• Greatest ruler: Krishna I - built the magnificent Kailasa Temple at Ellora
• Amoghavarsha I: Known as patron of literature - wrote Kavirajamarga (first Kannada literary work)
• Arab travellers praised Rashtrakuta rulers

13. Rajput Period (700 CE - 1200 CE)

13.1 Introduction

After the decline of Harsha's empire, Rajput clans emerged as the dominant political power in northern and central India. They were known for their bravery, chivalry and warrior culture.

13.2 Origin Theory

• Agnikula Theory (Fire Origin): Some Rajput clans claimed descent from a fire pit (yajna kunda) at Mount Abu - mentioned in Prithviraj Raso by Chand Bardai
• Clans claiming Agnikula origin: Paramaras, Pratiharas, Chahamanas (Chauhans), Chandellas

13.3 Major Rajput Dynasties

13.4 Important Rajput Rulers

Raja Bhoja (Paramara - 1000-1055 CE):

• Great patron of Sanskrit learning
• Wrote 84 books on various subjects
• Built Bhojeshwara Temple and Bhoj Sagar Lake at Bhopal region
• Founded Bhojpal (Bhopal)

Prithviraj Chauhan III (1178-1192 CE):

• Last great Hindu king of Delhi
• Won the First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE) against Muhammad of Ghor
• Defeated in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE) - marked end of Rajput supremacy
• His story told in Prithviraj Raso by Chand Bardai (though historically not fully accurate)

Mihira Bhoja (Pratihara - 836-882 CE):

• Controlled Kannauj - the most coveted throne of North India
• Fought the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj with Palas and Rashtrakutas

14. Ancient Indian Art and Architecture

14.1 Stupas

A Stupa is a dome-shaped Buddhist monument built to contain the relics of Buddha or Buddhist monks.

Parts of a Stupa:

• Anda: The dome
• Harmika: The railing on top of the dome
• Yashti: The umbrella-like pole
• Vedika: The outer railing
• Torana: Decorated gateways

14.2 Rock-Cut Architecture

Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra):

• 30 rock-cut caves in Aurangabad district
• Buddhist caves - Viharas and Chaityas
• Famous for magnificent paintings depicting Jataka stories (stories of Buddha's previous lives)
• Most paintings are from Gupta and Vakataka periods (4th-6th century CE)
• UNESCO World Heritage Site

Ellora Caves (Maharashtra):

• 34 rock-cut caves near Aurangabad
• Includes Buddhist, Hindu and Jain caves - rare example of religious harmony
• Most famous: Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) - carved entirely out of a single rock - commissioned by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I
• UNESCO World Heritage Site

Elephanta Caves (Maharashtra):

• Near Mumbai - dedicated to Shiva
• Famous Trimurti sculpture - three-faced Shiva (Maheshmurti)
• UNESCO World Heritage Site

Barabar Caves (Bihar):

• Oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India
• Built by Ashoka for Ajivika monks

14.3 Temple Architecture

Three main styles of temple architecture in ancient India:

Famous Ancient Temples:

• Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur: Built by Chola king Raja Raja I - Nagara-Dravida style - UNESCO site
• Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram: Built by Pallava king Narasimhavarman II
• Khajuraho Temples: Built by Chandella Rajputs - famous for erotic sculptures
• Sun Temple, Konark: Built by Eastern Ganga king Narasimha I
• Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchipuram: Built by Pallavas

15. Ancient Literature

15.1 Sanskrit Literature

15.2 Buddhist Literature

15.3 Tamil Literature

• Sangam Literature: Composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE
• Three Tamil Sangams (Assemblies):
  • First: Madurai - presided by Agastya
  • Second: Kapadapuram - presided by Agastya and Tolkappiyar
  • Third: Madurai (current) - produced surviving literature
• Famous Sangam works: Purananuru, Akananuru, Tolkappiyam (oldest Tamil grammar)
• Silappadikaram: Greatest Tamil epic - by Ilango Adigal (story of Kovalan and Kannagi)
• Manimekalai: Sequel to Silappadikaram - by Sattanar
• Thirukkural: By Thiruvalluvar - ethical text called the Tamil Veda

16. Important Foreign Travellers

16.1 Megasthenes (302-298 BCE)

• Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus Nicator to Chandragupta Maurya's court
• Wrote Indica - most important source for Mauryan India
• Describes Pataliputra as a magnificent city
• Mentions no slavery in India (which was incorrect - he confused caste with slavery)
• Described India's social structure, animals (mentions unicorns - likely rhinoceros), administration

16.2 Fa-Hien (399-414 CE)

• Chinese Buddhist monk who visited India during Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)'s reign
• Came to collect Buddhist manuscripts and study Buddhism
• Stayed mainly at Pataliputra, Mathura and in Sri Lanka
• His account: Fo Kuo Chi (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms)
• Describes India as prosperous and peaceful
• Mentions that people were free from government oppression
• Notes Buddhism flourishing in India
• Describes no death penalty in Gupta India

16.3 Hiuen Tsang / Xuanzang (629-645 CE)

• Greatest Chinese traveller to India - visited during Harshavardhana's reign
• Spent 15 years in India
• Studied at Nalanda University for several years under master Silabhadra
• His account: Si-yu-ki (Record of Western Regions)
• Describes Buddhism as declining in India
• Mentions Harsha as a benevolent ruler
• Valuable source for understanding India in the 7th century
• Took back 657 Buddhist texts to China

16.4 Al-Biruni (1017-1030 CE)

• Central Asian scholar who came with Mahmud of Ghazni
• Wrote Kitab-ul-Hind (Tahqiq-i-Hind) - most detailed account of India
• Translated Sanskrit texts including Bhagavad Gita and Patanjali's Yoga Sutras
• Praised Indian scholarship and science
• Critical of India's caste system

16.5 Other Important Travellers

17. SSC CGL Important One-Liners - Ancient History

1. The Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the Harappan Civilisation
2. Harappa was discovered by Dayaram Sahni in 1921
3. Mohenjo-daro means Mound of the Dead
4. The world's first dockyard was found at Lothal (Gujarat)
5. Rakhigarhi (Haryana) is the largest IVC site in India
6. The IVC script has not been deciphered till today
7. Bhimbetka rock shelters are associated with the Paleolithic Age
8. Mehrgarh is the oldest Neolithic site in the subcontinent
9. Rigveda is the oldest Veda
10. Samaveda is the origin of Indian classical music
11. The 16 Mahajanapadas are mentioned in Anguttara Nikaya
12. Vaishali was the world's first known republic
13. Bimbisara was the first important king of Magadha
14. Ajatashatru held the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha
15. Mahavira was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali
16. Mahavira's symbol was a lion
17. Jainism's first Tirthankara was Rishabhadeva
18. Buddha was born at Lumbini (Nepal) in 563 BCE
19. Buddha's first sermon at Sarnath is called Dhammachakkapavattana
20. Buddha died at Kushinagar in 483 BCE
21. The Third Buddhist Council was held under Ashoka at Pataliputra
22. Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire in 322 BCE
23. Chanakya wrote Arthashastra
24. Megasthenes wrote Indica
25. Ashoka fought the Kalinga War in 261 BCE
26. James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi script in 1837
27. Ashoka Chakra has 24 spokes
28. India's national emblem is the Lion Capital of Sarnath
29. Kanishka started the Fourth Buddhist Council
30. Saka Era started in 78 CE
31. Gupta period is called the Golden Age of India
32. Samudragupta is called the Napoleon of India
33. Fa-Hien visited India during Chandragupta II's reign
34. Aryabhata calculated the value of Pi = 3.1416
35. Kalidasa wrote Abhijnana Shakuntalam
36. Nalanda University was founded by Kumaragupta I
37. Hiuen Tsang studied at Nalanda University
38. Harshavardhana was defeated by Pulakesi II at the Narmada River
39. Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita
40. Kailasa Temple at Ellora was built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I
41. Ajanta Caves are famous for Buddhist paintings
42. Khajuraho Temples were built by Chandella Rajputs
43. Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated at the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE)
44. Panchatantra was written by Vishnu Sharma
45. Rajatarangini was written by Kalhana - history of Kashmir
46. Tolkappiyam is the oldest Tamil grammar text
47. Silappadikaram was written by Ilango Adigal
48. Thirukkural was written by Thiruvalluvar
49. Al-Biruni wrote Kitab-ul-Hind
50. Ashtadhyayi (Sanskrit grammar with 4000 rules) was written by Panini

18. Chapter Summary

Ancient Indian history is a rich and vast subject that forms the foundation of India's cultural, religious and political identity. For SSC CGL, the most important areas to focus on are:

Top Priority Topics:

• Indus Valley Civilisation - sites, features, discoveries
• Buddhism - Buddha's life, Four Noble Truths, Buddhist Councils
• Jainism - Mahavira, principles, sects
• Mauryan Empire - Chandragupta, Ashoka, Arthashastra, inscriptions
• Gupta Empire - Golden Age, Aryabhata, Kalidasa
• Important foreign travellers and their works
• Ancient literature - authors and their books

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